![\"Nguy](\"https:\/\/damau.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/10\/Nguy-Bien-illustration-2.jpg\" "\\"Nguy")
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Ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n l\u00e0 t\u1eeb H\u00e1n Vi\u1ec7t. N\u00f3 k\u1ebft h\u1ee3p b\u1edfi hai ch\u1eef ng\u1ee5y \u50de<\/strong> <\/strong>:<\/strong> <\/strong>d<\/strong>\u1ed1<\/strong>i<\/strong>, gi\u1ea3, v\u00e0<\/strong> <\/strong>bi\u1ec7n \u8faf<\/strong> <\/strong>:<\/strong> <\/strong>x\u00e9t r\u00f5 \u0111\u1ec3 ph\u00e2n bi\u1ec7t; bi\u1ec7n bi\u1ec7t; bi\u1ec7n r\u00f5. T\u1eeb \u0111i\u1ec3n Ti\u1ebfng Vi\u1ec7t<\/i> (Ho\u00e0ng Ph\u00ea) \u0111\u1ecbnh ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 \u201cC\u1ed1 \u00fd d\u00f9ng nh\u1eefng l\u00fd l\u1ebd b\u1ec1 ngo\u00e0i c\u00f3 v\u1ebb \u0111\u00fang nh\u01b0ng th\u1eadt ra l\u00e0 sai, \u0111\u1ec3 r\u00fat ra nh\u1eefng k\u1ebft lu\u1eadn kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u00fang s\u1ef1 th\u1eadt\u201d. Ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n ti\u1ebfng Anh l\u00e0 fallacy<\/i>. <\/i>T\u1eeb \u0111i\u1ec3n The Oxford Reference English Dictionary (1996) <\/i>\u0111\u1ecbnh ngh\u0129a v\u1ec1 m\u1eb7t lu\u1eadn l\u00fd (logic) l\u00e0 <\/i>\u201cSai l\u1ea7m l\u00e0m gi\u1ea3m gi\u00e1 tr\u1ecb c\u1ee7a lu\u1eadn c\u1ee9\u201c (a flaw that vitiates an argument). <\/i>N\u00f3 c\u00f3 g\u1ed1c ng\u1eef Latin l\u00e0 fallacia<\/i>: ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 l\u1eadp lu\u1eadn gian d\u1ed1i, th\u1ee7 \u0111o\u1ea1n \u0111\u00e1nh l\u1eeba. <\/p>\n Nh\u01b0 th\u1ebf, c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 hi\u1ec3u ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n l\u00e0 1\/ Sai l\u1ea7m lu\u1eadn l\u00fd (logic)<\/i>; l\u1eadp lu\u1eadn kh\u00f4ng \u0111i theo c\u00e1c qui t\u1eafc suy lu\u1eadn ho\u1eb7c vi ph\u1ea1m ch\u00fang; 2\/ M\u1ed9t lu\u1eadn c\u1ee9 l\u00e0m cho l\u1ea1c \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng theo ngh\u0129a n\u00f3 kh\u00f4ng ch\u00ednh x\u00e1c nh\u01b0ng c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 ho\u1eb7c \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c d\u00f9ng \u0111\u1ec3 thuy\u1ebft ph\u1ee5c ng\u01b0\u1eddi kh\u00e1c r\u1eb1ng n\u00f3 ch\u00ednh x\u00e1c; 3\/ M\u1ed9t lu\u1eadn c\u1ee9 c\u00f3 khuy\u1ebft \u0111i\u1ec3m (gi\u1ea3 t\u1ea1o, kh\u00f4ng ch\u00ednh x\u00e1c, sai l\u1ea7m, c\u00f3 khuy\u1ebft \u0111i\u1ec3m) trong \u0111\u00f3 k\u1ebft lu\u1eadn kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ch\u1ee9ng minh b\u1eb1ng nh\u1eefng ph\u00e1t bi\u1ec3u h\u1ed7 tr\u1ee3 n\u00f3. <\/p>\n Trong cu\u1ed9c s\u1ed1ng h\u1eb1ng ng\u00e0y, b\u00ean c\u1ea1nh nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi c\u00f3 ngh\u1ec1 nghi\u1ec7p chuy\u00ean m\u00f4n bi\u1ec7n lu\u1eadn hay bi\u1ec7n b\u00e1c, ng\u01b0\u1eddi b\u00ecnh th\u01b0\u1eddng c\u0169ng n\u00ean c\u00f3 s\u1ef1 am hi\u1ec3u th\u1ea5u \u0111\u00e1o v\u00e0 \u0111\u1ea7y \u0111\u1ee7 v\u1ec1 ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n, \u0111\u1ec3 tr\u01b0\u1edbc h\u1ebft, c\u00f3 kh\u1ea3 n\u0103ng t\u01b0 duy h\u1ee3p l\u00fd, tr\u00e1nh cho b\u1ea3n th\u00e2n kh\u00f4ng b\u1ecb sa v\u00e0o s\u1ef1 v\u00f4 t\u00ecnh ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n c\u1ee7a ch\u00ednh m\u00ecnh, v\u00e0 th\u1ee9 \u0111\u1ebfn, gi\u1eef t\u00e2m tr\u00ed t\u1ec9nh t\u00e1o, \u0111\u1ec3 kh\u00f4ng b\u1ecb l\u1eeba b\u1ecbp b\u1edfi s\u1ef1 c\u1ed1 t\u00ecnh ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n c\u1ee7a k\u1ebb kh\u00e1c. <\/p>\n C\u00f3 th\u1ec3 chia ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n th\u00e0nh hai nh\u00f3m hay hai h\u1ea1ng m\u1ee5c: ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n h\u00ecnh th\u1ee9c v\u00e0 ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n kh\u00f4ng h\u00ecnh th\u1ee9c. <\/p>\n Ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n h\u00ecnh th\u1ee9c (<\/i>formal fallacies)<\/i><\/strong> <\/p>\n \u0110\u00e2y l\u00e0 lo\u1ea1i ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta ph\u1ea1m ph\u1ea3i ch\u1ec9 v\u00ec c\u00e1c lu\u1eadn c\u1ee9 hay l\u1eadp lu\u1eadn mang t\u00ednh di\u1ec5n d\u1ecbch (deductivism), <\/i>m\u1ed9t ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p suy lu\u1eadn \u0111i t\u1eeb nh\u1eefng nguy\u00ean l\u00fd chung \u0111\u1ebfn nh\u1eefng k\u1ebft lu\u1eadn ri\u00eang; tr\u00e1i v\u1edbi qui n\u1ea1p. Lo\u1ea1i ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n n\u00e0y mang m\u1ed9t trong ba h\u00ecnh th\u1ee9c: <\/p>\n 1. M\u1ed9t lu\u1eadn c\u1ee9 v\u00f4 gi\u00e1 tr\u1ecb; sai l\u1ea7m trong lu\u1eadn l\u00fd suy di\u1ec5n (l\u1eadp lu\u1eadn) trong \u0111\u00f3 k\u1ebft lu\u1eadn kh\u00f4ng \u0111i theo t\u00ednh t\u1ea5t y\u1ebfu t\u1eeb ti\u1ec1n \u0111\u1ec1. <\/i> <\/p>\n <\/i>2. S\u1ef1 suy ra v\u00f4 gi\u00e1 tr\u1ecb; s\u1ef1 suy ra sai ho\u1eb7c hi\u1ec3u sai ho\u1eb7c gi\u1ea3i th\u00edch sai, khi\u1ebfn n\u00f3 c\u00f3 v\u1ebb nh\u01b0 theo qui t\u1eafc \u0111\u00fang c\u1ee7a ph\u00e9p di\u1ec5n d\u1ecbch nh\u01b0ng th\u1eadt ra, kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u00fang, th\u00ed d\u1ee5 ph\u1ee7 \u0111\u1ecbnh ti\u1ec1n \u0111\u1ec1 c\u1ee7a ph\u00e1t bi\u1ec3u c\u00f3 \u0111i\u1ec1u ki\u1ec7n nh\u1eb1m ph\u1ee7 \u0111\u1ecbnh h\u1ec7 qu\u1ea3 c\u1ee7a n\u00f3. <\/p>\n 3. Sai l\u1ea7m c\u1ee7a h\u00ecnh th\u1ee9c lu\u1eadn l\u00fd, vi ph\u1ea1m nguy\u00ean t\u1eafc suy di\u1ec5n ho\u1eb7c nguy\u00ean t\u1eafc lu\u1eadn l\u00fd. <\/p>\n Ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n kh\u00f4ng h\u00ecnh th\u1ee9c (<\/i>informal fallacies<\/i>)<\/i><\/strong> <\/p>\n \u0110\u00e2y l\u00e0 lo\u1ea1i ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n th\u01b0\u1eddng g\u1eb7p nh\u1ea5t. Ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta ph\u1ea1m ph\u1ea3i b\u1eb1ng c\u00e1c lu\u1eadn c\u1ee9 ho\u1eb7c l\u1eadp lu\u1eadn mang t\u00ednh qui n\u1ea1p (inductivism)<\/i>, m\u1ed9t ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p suy lu\u1eadn \u0111i t\u1eeb c\u00e1c hi\u1ec7n t\u01b0\u1ee3ng, s\u1ef1 ki\u1ec7n ri\u00eang \u0111\u1ebfn c\u00e1c k\u1ebft lu\u1eadn chung; tr\u00e1i v\u1edbi ph\u00e9p di\u1ec5n d\u1ecbch. Lo\u1ea1i ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n kh\u00f4ng h\u00ecnh th\u1ee9c n\u00e0y c\u00f3 m\u1ed9t trong hai d\u1ea1ng: <\/p>\n 1. B\u1ea5t c\u1ee9 sai l\u1ea7m n\u00e0o trong l\u1eadp lu\u1eadn \u0111\u01b0a t\u1edbi c\u00e1c k\u1ebft lu\u1eadn kh\u00f4ng \u0111i theo c\u1ea5u tr\u00fac h\u00ecnh th\u1ee9c v\u00e0 qui t\u1eafc v\u1ec1 t\u00ednh gi\u00e1 tr\u1ecb lu\u1eadn l\u00fd (logic)<\/i>. <\/p>\n 2. Lu\u1eadn c\u1ee9 m\u00e0 k\u1ebft lu\u1eadn kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ch\u1ee9ng minh (h\u1ed7 tr\u1ee3) m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch t\u01b0\u01a1ng x\u1ee9ng, ho\u1eb7c kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 c\u00e1i k\u1ebft lu\u1eadn nh\u1ea5t thi\u1ebft ph\u1ea3i r\u00fat ra. <\/p>\n C\u00f3 th\u1ec3 s\u1eafp x\u1ebfp c\u00e1c ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n kh\u00f4ng h\u00ecnh th\u1ee9c b\u1eb1ng nhi\u1ec1u c\u00e1ch kh\u00e1c nhau. \u0110\u1ea1i kh\u00e1i, c\u00f3 ba h\u1ea1ng m\u1ee5c t\u1ed5ng qu\u00e1t: <\/p>\n 1. C\u00e1c ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n ch\u1ea5t li\u1ec7u <\/i>(m<\/i>aterial fallacies<\/i>)<\/i><\/strong>.<\/strong> <\/i>Ch\u00fang \u1ee9ng x\u1eed v\u1edbi s\u1ef1 ki\u1ec7n (v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1, n\u1ed9i dung) c\u1ee7a lu\u1eadn c\u1ee9 trong c\u00e2u h\u1ecfi (v\u1ea5n n\u1ea1n). Hai h\u1ea1ng m\u1ee5c ph\u1ee5 c\u1ee7a ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n ch\u1ea5t li\u1ec7u l\u00e0 a\/ ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n b\u1eb1ng c\u1ee9 <\/i>(<\/i>fallacies of evidence)<\/i> c\u00f3 \u00fd n\u00f3i c\u00e1c lu\u1eadn c\u1ee9 kh\u00f4ng cung c\u1ea5p s\u1ef1 h\u1ed7 tr\u1ee3 c\u00f3 t\u00ednh s\u1ef1 ki\u1ec7n v\u00e0 b\u1ecb \u0111\u00f2i h\u1ecfi (c\u01a1 s\u1edf, b\u1eb1ng c\u1ee9) cho k\u1ebft lu\u1eadn c\u1ee7a ch\u00fang; b\/ ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n kh\u00f4ng th\u00edch \u0111\u00e1ng (<\/i>fallacies of irrelevance<\/i>) <\/i>ho\u1eb7c th\u00edch \u0111\u00e1ng <\/i>(<\/i>fallacies of relevance)<\/i> c\u00f3 \u00fd n\u00f3i nh\u1eefng lu\u1eadn c\u1ee9 h\u1ed7 tr\u1ee3 l\u1eddi ph\u00e1t bi\u1ec3u kh\u00f4ng th\u00edch \u0111\u00e1ng \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi k\u1ebft lu\u1eadn \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c kh\u1eb3ng \u0111\u1ecbnh, do \u0111\u00f3 kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 thi\u1ebft l\u1eadp ch\u00e2n l\u00fd\/s\u1ef1 th\u1eadt c\u1ee7a k\u1ebft lu\u1eadn \u0111\u00f3. <\/p>\n 2. C\u00e1c ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n ng\u00f4n ng\u1eef <\/i>(l<\/i>inguistic fallacies)<\/i>.<\/i><\/strong> Ch\u00fang \u1ee9ng x\u1eed v\u1edbi nh\u1eefng khuy\u1ebft \u0111i\u1ec3m trong lu\u1eadn c\u1ee9, th\u00ed d\u1ee5 t\u1ed1i ngh\u0129a (trong \u0111\u00f3 nh\u1eefng chuy\u1ec3n \u0111\u1ed5i c\u1ea9u th\u1ea3 v\u1ec1 \u00fd ngh\u0129a ho\u1eb7c s\u1ef1 kh\u00f4ng ch\u00ednh x\u00e1c v\u1ec1 ng\u00f4n ng\u1eef d\u1eabn t\u1edbi nh\u1eefng k\u1ebft lu\u1eadn sai l\u1ea1c), m\u01a1 h\u1ed3, d\u00f9ng ch\u1eef kh\u00f4ng ch\u00ednh x\u00e1c, thi\u1ebfu trong s\u00e1ng, b\u1ea5t nh\u1ea5t v\u1ec1 ng\u00f4n ng\u1eef, v\u00e0 l\u1ea9n qu\u1ea9n. <\/p>\n 3. C\u00e1c ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n k\u00eau c\u1ea7u c\u1ea3m x\u00fac kh\u00f4ng th\u00edch \u0111\u00e1ng (fallacies of irrelevant emotional appeal)<\/i>.<\/strong> Ch\u00fang li\u00ean quan t\u1edbi \u0111\u1ed9ng th\u00e1i x\u00fac \u0111\u1ed9ng (ph\u1ea3n \u1ee9ng, th\u00e1i \u0111\u1ed9). Ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 c\u00e1c lu\u1eadn c\u1ee9 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c tr\u00ecnh b\u00e0y theo c\u00e1ch k\u00eau g\u1ecdi t\u1edbi, ho\u1eb7c vi\u1ec7n d\u1eabn th\u00e0nh ki\u1ebfn, thi\u00ean ki\u1ebfn, l\u00f2ng trung th\u00e0nh, s\u1ef1 t\u1eadn hi\u1ebfn, s\u1ef1 s\u1ee3 h\u00e3i, ph\u1ea1m t\u1ed9i, v.v. Ch\u00fang thuy\u1ebft ph\u1ee5c, t\u00e1n t\u1ec9nh ph\u1ec9nh ph\u1edd, h\u0103m d\u1ecda ho\u1eb7c g\u00e2y hoang mang, nh\u1eb1m s\u1edf \u0111\u1eafc s\u1ef1 ph\u00ea chu\u1ea9n lu\u1eadn c\u1ee9. C\u00f3 \u00edt nh\u1ea5t b\u1ed1n ch\u1ee5c ki\u1ec3u ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n kh\u00f4ng h\u00ecnh th\u1ee9c <\/p>\n C\u00e1c ki\u1ec3u ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n kh\u00f4ng h\u00ecnh th\u1ee9c (<\/i>types of informal fallacies)<\/i><\/strong> <\/p>\n \u0110\u00f4i khi ch\u00fang c\u00f2n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 c\u00e1c ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n b\u00e1n h\u00ecnh th\u1ee9c<\/strong> (<\/i>semiformal <\/i>fallacies), <\/i>ho\u1eb7c c\u00e1c ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n g\u1ea7n nh\u01b0 l\u00e0 h\u00ecnh th\u1ee9c<\/strong> (<\/i>quasi-formal fallacies<\/i>)<\/i>. V\u00ec ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n l\u00e0 m\u01b0u thu\u1eadt \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c d\u00f9ng b\u1edfi v\u00f4 s\u1ed1 h\u1ea1ng ng\u01b0\u1eddi, trong v\u00f4 s\u1ed1 th\u1eddi \u0111\u1ea1i v\u00e0 ho\u00e0n c\u1ea3nh, \u1edf v\u00f4 s\u1ed1 l\u0129nh v\u1ef1c c\u00f4ng v\u00e0 t\u01b0, n\u00ean n\u00f3 thi\u00ean h\u00ecnh v\u1ea1n tr\u1ea1ng v\u00e0 bi\u1ebfn h\u00f3a kh\u00f4n l\u01b0\u1eddng. Cho t\u1edbi nay, ch\u01b0a n\u1ed7 l\u1ef1c n\u00e0o c\u00f3 kh\u1ea3 n\u0103ng gom h\u1ebft t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 ch\u00fang v\u00e0o m\u1ed9t h\u1ea1ng m\u1ee5c t\u1ed5ng qu\u00e1t \u0111\u1ec3 c\u00f3 m\u1ed9t b\u1ea3ng li\u1ec7t k\u00ea \u0111\u1ea7y \u0111\u1ee7 c\u00e1c ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n kh\u00f4ng h\u00ecnh th\u1ee9c. <\/p>\n V\u00ec v\u1eady, danh s\u00e1ch 40 ki\u1ec3u ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n kh\u00f4ng h\u00ecnh th\u1ee9c d\u01b0\u1edbi \u0111\u00e2y kh\u00f4ng ghi nh\u1eadn h\u1ebft m\u1ecdi kh\u00eda c\u1ea1nh, m\u00e0 ch\u1ec9 c\u00f3 t\u00ednh ti\u00eau bi\u1ec3u. Ng\u01b0\u1eddi tham kh\u1ea3o c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 tri\u1ec3n khai th\u00eam th\u00f4ng qua c\u00e1c thu\u1eadt ng\u1eef ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n h\u00ecnh th\u1ee9c l\u1eabn kh\u00f4ng h\u00ecnh th\u1ee9c ghi b\u1ed5 t\u00fac \u1edf ph\u1ea7n cu\u1ed1i c\u1ee7a b\u00e0i n\u00e0y, trong \u0111\u00f3 c\u00f3 nhi\u1ec1u thu\u1eadt ng\u1eef Latin. <\/p>\n 1. Ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n \u0111en tr\u1eafng<\/strong> (<\/i>b<\/i>lack-and-white fallacy)<\/i>. L\u1eadp lu\u1eadn b\u1eb1ng s\u1ef1 ph\u00e2n bi\u1ec7t s\u1eafc n\u00e9t (\u0111en v\u1edbi tr\u1eafng) b\u1ea5t ch\u1ea5p s\u1ef1 h\u1ed7 tr\u1ee3 th\u1ef1c t\u1ebf v\u00e0 thu\u1ea7n l\u00fd thuy\u1ebft cho ch\u00fang, ho\u1eb7c x\u1ebfp lo\u1ea1i b\u1ea5t c\u1ee9 \u0111i\u1ec3m gi\u1eefa n\u00e0o gi\u1eefa hai c\u1ef1c \u0111i\u1ec3m (\u0111en v\u00e0 tr\u1eafng) nh\u01b0 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t trong c\u00e1c c\u1ef1c \u0111i\u1ec3m. Th\u00ed d\u1ee5, \u201cN\u1ebfu h\u1eafn kh\u00f4ng l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi v\u00f4 th\u1ea7n th\u00ec h\u1eafn l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi ch\u00ednh tr\u1ef1c\u201d; \u201cH\u1eafn ho\u1eb7c l\u00e0 b\u1ea3o th\u1ee7 ho\u1eb7c l\u00e0 c\u1ea5p ti\u1ebfn\u201d; \u201cH\u1eafn kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi y\u00eau h\u00f2a b\u00ecnh v\u00ec h\u1eafn t\u1eebng \u0111\u1ee9ng l\u00e0m r\u00e0o c\u1ea3n cho s\u1ee9 qu\u00e1n M\u1ef9\u201d. <\/p>\n 2. Ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n d\u1ef1a v\u00e0o b\u1ea1o l\u1ef1c<\/strong> (f<\/i>allacy of argumentum baculinum)<\/i>. N\u00f3 l\u00e0 l\u00fd l\u1ebd theo c\u00e2y g\u1eady (argument according to the stick<\/i>)<\/i>, ho\u1eb7c l\u00fd l\u1ebd b\u1eb1ng c\u00e2y roi (<\/i>argument by means of the rod<\/i>)<\/i>. L\u1eadp lu\u1eadn v\u1edbi s\u1ef1 h\u1ed7 tr\u1ee3 vi\u1ec7c ch\u1ea5p nh\u1eadn lu\u1eadn c\u1ee9 b\u1eb1ng h\u0103m d\u1ecda ho\u1eb7c d\u00f9ng s\u1ee9c m\u1ea1nh. Khi vi\u1ec7c l\u1eadp lu\u1eadn b\u1ecb thay th\u1ebf b\u1eb1ng s\u1ee9c m\u1ea1nh, k\u1ebft qu\u1ea3 c\u1ee7a n\u00f3 l\u00e0 k\u1ebft li\u1ec5u s\u1ef1 c\u00e3i l\u00fd v\u00e0 g\u1ee3i t\u1edbi c\u00e1c lo\u1ea1i \u0111\u1ed9ng th\u00e1i kh\u00e1c nh\u01b0 s\u1ee3 h\u00e3i, gi\u1eadn d\u1eef, ho\u1eb7c \u0111\u00f4i b\u00ean d\u00f9ng s\u1ee9c m\u1ea1nh. <\/p>\n 3. <\/i>Ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n b\u1eb1ng lu\u1eadn c\u1ee9 c\u00f4ng k\u00edch c\u00e1 nh\u00e2n<\/strong> (f<\/i>allacy of argumentum ad hominem<\/i>\/argument against man<\/i>). L\u1eadp lu\u1eadn ch\u1ed1ng con ng\u01b0\u1eddi, ho\u1eb7c t\u1eeb kh\u01b0\u1edbc quan \u0111i\u1ec3m c\u1ee7a ng\u01b0\u1eddi kh\u00e1c (\u0111\u1ed1i ph\u01b0\u01a1ng) b\u1eb1ng c\u00e1ch c\u00f4ng k\u00edch ho\u1eb7c s\u1ec9 nh\u1ee5c ng\u01b0\u1eddi kh\u00e1c v\u1ec1 nh\u00e2n c\u00e1ch, c\u00e1 t\u00ednh, \u0111\u1ed9ng c\u01a1, d\u1ef1 t\u00ednh, ph\u1ea9m ch\u1ea5t, v.v.. N\u00f3 \u0111\u1ed1i l\u1eadp v\u1edbi vi\u1ec7c cung c\u1ea5p b\u1eb1ng c\u1ee9 ch\u1ee9ng minh t\u1ea1i sao ng\u01b0\u1eddi kh\u00e1c kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u00fang. Th\u00ed d\u1ee5: \u201c\u0110i\u1ec1u anh ta n\u00f3i kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u00e1ng tin v\u00ec anh ta l\u00e0 c\u1ea3m t\u00ecnh vi\u00ean c\u1ee7a \u0111\u1ea3ng Qu\u1ed1c x\u00e3.\u201d <\/p>\n 4. Ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n b\u1eb1ng l\u1eadp lu\u1eadn l\u1ee3i d\u1ee5ng s\u1ef1 ngu d\u1ed1t<\/strong> (f<\/i>allacy of argumentum ad ignoratian<\/i>\/<\/i> <\/i>argument to ignorance<\/i>\/argument from ignorance<\/i>)<\/i>. L\u1eadp lu\u1eadn r\u1eb1ng c\u00e1i \u0111\u00f3 \u0111\u00fang v\u00ec kh\u00f4ng ai ch\u1ee9ng minh r\u1eb1ng n\u00f3 sai; ho\u1eb7c l\u1eadp lu\u1eadn r\u1eb1ng c\u00e1i \u0111\u00f3 sai v\u00ec kh\u00f4ng ai ch\u1ee9ng minh r\u1eb1ng n\u00f3 \u0111\u00fang. Th\u00ed d\u1ee5, \u201cQu\u1ec9 th\u1ea7n c\u00f3 th\u1eadt v\u00ec ch\u01b0a t\u1eebng c\u00f3 ai ch\u1ee9ng minh r\u1eb1ng n\u00f3 kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 th\u1eadt\u201d, ho\u1eb7c \u201cQu\u1ec9 th\u1ea7n kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 th\u1eadt v\u00ec ch\u01b0a t\u1eebng c\u00f3 ai ch\u1ee9ng minh r\u1eb1ng n\u00f3 c\u00f3 th\u1eadt\u201d. L\u1ed1i ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n n\u00e0y c\u00f2n g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 vi\u1ec7n c\u1edb ngu d\u1ed1t (<\/i>appeal to ignorance<\/i>),<\/i> d\u00f9ng s\u1ef1 thi\u1ebfu b\u1eb1ng c\u1ee9 \u0111\u1ec3 h\u1ed7 tr\u1ee3 cho vi\u1ec7c ch\u1ee9ng minh c\u00e1i g\u00ec \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0 \u0111\u00fang ho\u1eb7c kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u00fang. <\/p>\n 5. <\/i>Ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n b\u1eb1ng l\u1eadp lu\u1eadn d\u1ef1a v\u00e0o s\u1ef1 th\u01b0\u01a1ng x<\/strong>\u00f3t (fallacy of argumentum ad misericordiam<\/i>\/<\/i> argument to pity<\/i>),<\/i> ho\u1eb7c c\u1ea7u vi\u1ec7n l\u00f2ng th\u01b0\u01a1ng x\u00f3t (appeal to pity<\/i>)<\/i>. L\u1eadp lu\u1eadn b\u1eb1ng c\u00e1ch vi\u1ec7n t\u1edbi l\u00f2ng th\u01b0\u01a1ng x\u00f3t \u0111\u1ec3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ch\u1ea5p nh\u1eadn quan \u0111i\u1ec3m n\u00e0o \u0111\u00f3. Th\u00ed d\u1ee5, \u201cTh\u01b0a th\u1ea7y, em \u0111\u00e1ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u00edt nh\u1ea5t \u0111i\u1ec3m B cho m\u00f4n n\u00e0y, v\u00ec n\u1ebfu kh\u00f4ng, em kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 c\u01a1 h\u1ed9i v\u00e0o h\u1ecdc tr\u01b0\u1eddng y\u201d. <\/p>\n 6. Ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n b\u1eb1ng c\u00e1ch d\u1ef1a v\u00e0o nh\u1eefng s\u1edf th\u00edch ri\u00eang t\u01b0 c\u1ee7a ng\u01b0\u1eddi kh\u00e1c<\/strong> (f<\/i>allacy of argumentum ad personam<\/i>), nh\u1eefng \u01b0a th\u00edch, nh\u1eefng \u0111\u1ecbnh ki\u1ebfn, nh\u1eefng thi\u00ean h\u01b0\u1edbng, v.v. \u0111\u1ec3 cho lu\u1eadn c\u1ee9 c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ch\u1ea5p nh\u1eadn. <\/p>\n 7. Ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n b\u1eb1ng c\u00e1ch d\u1ef1a v\u00e0o d\u00e2n ch\u00fang<\/strong> (fallacy of argumentum ad populum<\/i>\/<\/i>argument to the people)<\/i>,<\/i> c\u00f2n g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 d\u1ef1a v\u00e0o qu\u1ea7n ch\u00fang y\u00eau th\u00edch; d\u1ef1a v\u00e0o \u0111a s\u1ed1; d\u1ef1a v\u00e0o c\u00e1i c\u00f3 t\u00ednh \u0111\u1ea1i ch\u00fang;<\/i> d\u1ef1a v\u00e0o ti\u00ean ki\u1ebfn c\u1ee7a \u0111\u1ea1i ch\u00fang;<\/i> d\u1ef1a v\u00e0o v\u00f4 s\u1ed1;<\/i> v\u00e0 d\u1ef1a v\u00e0o b\u1ea3n n\u0103ng qu\u1ea7n ch\u00fang h\u1ed7n t\u1ea1p. L\u1eadp lu\u1eadn nh\u1eb1m l\u00e0m ph\u00e1t sinh s\u1ef1 ch\u1ea5p nh\u1eadn c\u00f3 t\u00ednh x\u00fac \u0111\u1ed9ng c\u1ee7a \u0111\u1ea1i ch\u00fang m\u1ed9t \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng m\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng tr\u00ecnh b\u00e0y s\u1ef1 ch\u1ee9ng minh c\u00f3 t\u00ednh lu\u1eadn l\u00fd (logic)<\/i> \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng \u0111\u00f3. <\/p>\n 8. Ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n b\u1eb1ng l\u1eadp lu\u1eadn d\u1ef1a v\u00e0o th\u1ea9m quy\u1ec1n<\/strong> (f<\/i>allacy of argumentum ad verecundiam<\/i>\/<\/i>argument to authority),<\/i> ho\u1eb7c v\u00e0o s\u1ef1 \u0111\u00e1ng t\u00f4n k\u00ednh (<\/i>argument to veneration<\/i>)<\/i>. D\u1ef1a v\u00e0o th\u1ea9m quy\u1ec1n (g\u1ed3m t\u1eadp t\u1ee5c, truy\u1ec1n th\u1ed1ng, c\u00e1c \u0111\u1ecbnh ch\u1ebf, v.v.) nh\u1eb1m s\u1edf \u0111\u1eafc s\u1ef1 ch\u1ea5p nh\u1eadn quan \u0111i\u1ec3m v\u1ec1 m\u1ed9t v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1, ho\u1eb7c d\u1ef1a v\u00e0o c\u1ea3m x\u00fac mang t\u00ednh t\u00f4n k\u00ednh ho\u1eb7c s\u1ef1 t\u00f4n tr\u1ecdng m\u00e0 ch\u00fang ta c\u00f3 \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi ng\u01b0\u1eddi c\u00f3 th\u1ea9m quy\u1ec1n hay b\u1eadc v\u1ecb v\u1ecdng. Th\u00ed d\u1ee5, \u201cT\u00f4i tin r\u1eb1ng l\u1eddi ph\u00e1t bi\u1ec3u \u2018B\u1ea1n kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 l\u00e0m lu\u1eadt v\u1ec1 \u0111\u1ea1o \u0111\u1ee9c\u2019 l\u00e0 \u0111\u00fang v\u00ec T\u1ed5ng th\u1ed1ng Dwight Eisenhower \u0111\u00e3 n\u00f3i c\u00e2u \u0111\u00f3\u201d. <\/p>\n 9. Ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n b\u1eb1ng c\u00e1ch nh\u1ea5n gi\u1ecdng<\/strong> (fallacy of accent)<\/i>;<\/i> \u0111\u00f4i khi n\u00f3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c x\u1ebfp lo\u1ea1i l\u00e0 s\u1ef1 nh\u1eadp nh\u1eb1ng c\u1ee7a nh\u1ea5n gi\u1ecdng. L\u1eadp lu\u1eadn \u0111\u01b0a t\u1edbi c\u00e1c k\u1ebft lu\u1eadn t\u1eeb s\u1ef1 nh\u1ea5n m\u1ea1nh th\u00e1i qu\u00e1 (gi\u1ecdng n\u00f3i, cung \u0111i\u1ec7u) nh\u1eefng ch\u1eef ho\u1eb7c nh\u1eefng l\u1eddi ph\u00e1t bi\u1ec3u nh\u1ea5t \u0111\u1ecbnh. \u0110\u01b0\u1ee3c x\u1ebfp lo\u1ea1i l\u00e0 ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n mang t\u00ednh t\u1ed1i ngh\u0129a\/nh\u1eadp nh\u1eb1ng (fallacy of ambiguity<\/i>)<\/i> khi n\u00e0o s\u1ef1 nh\u1ea5n m\u1ea1nh t\u1ea1o ra t\u00ednh m\u01a1 h\u1ed3 ho\u1eb7c n\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111\u00f4i trong c\u00e1c t\u1eeb ng\u1eef ho\u1eb7c c\u00e1c l\u1eddi ph\u00e1t bi\u1ec3u \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c d\u00f9ng trong lu\u1eadn c\u1ee9. Th\u00ed d\u1ee5, \u201cNh\u00e0 l\u00e3nh \u0111\u1ea1o \u1ea5y kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 ch\u1ec9 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ca ng\u1ee3i\u201d. <\/p>\n 10. Ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n ng\u1eabu nhi\u00ean<\/strong> (<\/i>a dicto simpliciter at dictum secundum quid\/fallacy of accident),<\/i> c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 hi\u1ec3u tho\u00e1ng l\u00e0 \u0111i t\u1eeb ch\u00e2n l\u00fd\/s\u1ef1 th\u1eadt t\u1ed5ng qu\u00e1t t\u1edbi tr\u01b0\u1eddng h\u1ee3p c\u00e1 bi\u1ec7t b\u1ea5t ch\u1ea5p c\u00e1i sau c\u00f3 \u0111\u1ea1t chu\u1ea9n hay kh\u00f4ng. N\u00f3 \u00e1p d\u1ee5ng qui t\u1eafc, ho\u1eb7c nguy\u00ean t\u1eafc t\u1ed5ng qu\u00e1t, cho m\u1ed9t tr\u01b0\u1eddng h\u1ee3p (ho\u1eb7c th\u00ed d\u1ee5) c\u00e1 bi\u1ec7t m\u00e0 ho\u00e0n c\u1ea3nh ng\u1eabu nhi\u00ean kh\u00f4ng cho ph\u00e9p \u00e1p d\u1ee5ng c\u00e1i t\u1ed5ng qu\u00e1t \u0111\u00f3. Th\u00ed d\u1ee5, \u201cC\u00f3 s\u1ef1 th\u1eadt t\u1ed5ng qu\u00e1t r\u1eb1ng ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta kh\u00f4ng n\u00ean n\u00f3i d\u1ed1i, do \u0111\u00f3, kh\u00f4ng ng\u01b0\u1eddi n\u00e0o n\u00ean n\u00f3i d\u1ed1i khi t\u00ean s\u00e1t nh\u00e2n ch\u0129a m\u0169i dao \u0111\u00f2i h\u1ecfi b\u1ea1n ph\u1ea3i cung c\u1ea5p tin t\u1ee9c b\u1ea1n bi\u1ebft, d\u1eabn t\u1edbi m\u1ed9t v\u1ee5 gi\u1ebft ng\u01b0\u1eddi n\u1eefa\u201d. Ho\u1eb7c n\u00f3 sai l\u1ea7m trong l\u1eadp lu\u1eadn v\u1ec1 vi\u1ec7c \u00e1p d\u1ee5ng l\u1eddi ph\u00e1t bi\u1ec3u t\u1ed5ng qu\u00e1t v\u00e0o m\u1ed9t ho\u00e0n c\u1ea3nh c\u00e1 bi\u1ec7t trong \u0111\u00f3 kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 \u00e1p d\u1ee5ng v\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng nh\u1ea5t thi\u1ebft d\u1ef1 t\u00ednh \u00e1p d\u1ee5ng. <\/p>\n 11. Ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n t\u1ed1i ngh\u0129a<\/strong> (fallacy of ambiguity<\/i>)<\/i>. Lu\u1eadn c\u1ee9 c\u00f3 \u00edt nh\u1ea5t m\u1ed9t t\u1eeb ng\u1eef ho\u1eb7c l\u1eddi ph\u00e1t bi\u1ec3u m\u1eadp m\u1edd m\u00e0 t\u1eeb \u0111\u00f3 d\u1eabn t\u1edbi sai l\u1ea1c ho\u1eb7c r\u00fat ra k\u1ebft lu\u1eadn sai. Xem l\u1ea1i s\u1ed1 9. Ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n b\u1eb1ng c\u00e1ch nh\u1ea5n gi\u1ecdng. <\/p>\n 12. Ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n n\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111\u00f4i<\/strong> (f<\/i>allacy of amphiboly)<\/i>. L\u1eadp lu\u1eadn \u0111\u01b0a t\u1edbi k\u1ebft lu\u1eadn t\u1eeb l\u1eddi ph\u00e1t bi\u1ec3u c\u00f3 t\u00ednh n\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111\u00f4i \u2013 m\u01a1 h\u1ed3 v\u00ec c\u00fa ph\u00e1p c\u1ee7a n\u00f3 (c\u1ea5u tr\u00fac ng\u1eef ph\u00e1p). <\/p>\n 13. Ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n th\u1ec9nh c\u1ea7u v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1<\/strong> (f<\/i>allacy of begging question<\/i>)<\/i>. a\/ N\u00f3 \u0111i t\u1edbi k\u1ebft lu\u1eadn b\u1eb1ng k\u1ebft lu\u1eadn t\u1eeb c\u00e1c l\u1eddi ph\u00e1t bi\u1ec3u m\u00e0 t\u1ef1 th\u00e2n ch\u00fang \u0111\u00e3 c\u00f3 v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1 v\u00e0 c\u1ea7n ph\u1ea3i ch\u1ee9ng minh nh\u01b0ng l\u1ea1i \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c gi\u1ea3 \u0111\u1ecbnh l\u00e0 \u0111\u00fang. Th\u00ed d\u1ee5, \u201cV\u0169 tr\u1ee5 c\u00f3 b\u1eaft \u0111\u1ea7u. M\u1ecdi s\u1ef1 c\u00f3 b\u1eaft \u0111\u1ea7u th\u00ec c\u00f3 k\u1ebb b\u1eaft \u0111\u1ea7u. Do \u0111\u00f3, v\u0169 tr\u1ee5 c\u00f3 k\u1ebb b\u1eaft \u0111\u1ea7u \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 Th\u01b0\u1ee3ng \u0111\u1ebf\u201d. Lu\u1eadn c\u1ee9 n\u00e0y gi\u1ea3 d\u1ee5 (th\u1ec9nh c\u1ea7u v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1) r\u1eb1ng v\u0169 tr\u1ee5 qu\u1ea3 th\u1eadt c\u00f3 b\u1eaft \u0111\u1ea7u v\u00e0 c\u0169ng th\u1ebf v\u1ea1n v\u1eadt c\u00f3 b\u1eaft \u0111\u1ea7u, \u0111\u1ec1u c\u00f3 k\u1ebb b\u1eaft \u0111\u1ea7u. b\/ N\u00f3 gi\u1ea3 \u0111\u1ecbnh k\u1ebft lu\u1eadn ho\u1eb7c c\u00f3 ph\u1ea7n c\u1ee7a k\u1ebft lu\u1eadn trong c\u00e1c ti\u1ec1n \u0111\u1ec1 c\u1ee7a lu\u1eadn c\u1ee9, \u0111\u00f4i khi g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 l\u00fd lu\u1eadn l\u1ea9n qu\u1ea9n; ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n loanh quanh sai l\u1ea1c; ho\u1eb7c ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n l\u00f2ng v\u00f2ng sai l\u1ea1c. Th\u00ed d\u1ee5, \u201cM\u1ecdi c\u00e1i \u0111\u1ec1u c\u00f3 nguy\u00ean nh\u00e2n. V\u0169 tr\u1ee5 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t c\u00e1i. Do \u0111\u00f3 v\u0169 tr\u1ee5 l\u00e0 c\u00e1i c\u00f3 nguy\u00ean nh\u00e2n\u201d. c\/ N\u00f3 l\u1eadp lu\u1eadn trong v\u00f2ng tr\u00f2n \u2013 ph\u00e1t bi\u1ec3u n\u00e0y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c s\u1ef1 h\u1ed7 tr\u1ee3 nh\u1edd vi\u1ec7n d\u1eabn ph\u00e1t bi\u1ec3u kh\u00e1c m\u00e0 t\u1ef1 th\u00e2n c\u00e1i th\u1ee9 hai n\u00e0y l\u1ea1i \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c s\u1ef1 h\u1ed7 tr\u1ee3 c\u1ee7a c\u00e1i th\u1ee9 nh\u1ea5t. Th\u00ed d\u1ee5, \u201cTh\u1ec3 ch\u1ebf qu\u00ed t\u1ed9c tr\u1ecb l\u00e0 h\u00ecnh th\u1ee9c t\u1ed1t nh\u1ea5t v\u00ec h\u00ecnh th\u1ee9c t\u1ed1t nh\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a ch\u00ednh quy\u1ec1n l\u00e0 c\u00f3 s\u1ef1 l\u00e3nh \u0111\u1ea1o m\u1ea1nh m\u1ebd c\u1ee7a gi\u1edbi qu\u00ed t\u1ed9c\u201d. <\/p>\n 14. Ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n b\u1eb1ng c\u00e2u h\u1ecfi ph\u1ee9c t\u1ea1p, ho\u1eb7c c\u00e2u h\u1ecfi ch\u1ea5t ch\u1ee9a s\u1eb5n<\/strong> (fallacy of complex question<\/i>\/fallacy of<\/i> loaded question<\/i>)<\/i>. a\/ \u0110\u1eb7t c\u00e2u h\u1ecfi m\u00e0 \u0111\u00e1p c\u00f3 <\/i>ho\u1eb7c kh\u00f4ng<\/i> \u0111\u1ec1u \u0111\u00e3 b\u1ecb bu\u1ed9c s\u1eb5n trong c\u00e2u tr\u1ea3 l\u1eddi. C\u00e2u tr\u1ea3 l\u1eddi \u0111\u00fang nh\u01b0 mong mu\u1ed1n \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c kh\u00e9o gi\u1ea3 \u0111\u1ecbnh trong c\u00e2u h\u1ecfi, v\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 n\u00e0o tr\u1ea3 l\u1eddi kh\u00e1c. Th\u00ed d\u1ee5, \u201cB\u1ea1n c\u00f3 t\u1eebng gi\u00e1n \u0111o\u1ea1n vi\u1ec7c d\u00f9ng thu\u1ed1c phi\u1ec7n kh\u00f4ng?\u201d b\/ \u0110\u1eb7t c\u00e2u h\u1ecfi d\u1ef1a tr\u00ean th\u00e1i \u0111\u1ed9 kh\u00f4ng n\u00f3i r\u00f5 ho\u1eb7c c\u00e1c gi\u1ea3 \u0111\u1ecbnh c\u00f3 v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1 (ho\u1eb7c kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 bi\u1ec7n b\u1ea1ch). Nh\u1eefng c\u00e2u h\u1ecfi n\u00e0y th\u01b0\u1eddng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u1eb7t ra m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch s\u00e1o r\u1ed7ng, g\u1ee3i t\u1edbi c\u00e2u tr\u1ea3 l\u1eddi nh\u1ea5t tr\u00ed v\u1edbi th\u00e1i \u0111\u1ed9 ho\u1eb7c c\u00e1c gi\u1ea3 \u0111\u1ecbnh c\u1ee7a ng\u01b0\u1eddi kh\u00e1c. Th\u00ed d\u1ee5, \u201cB\u1ea1n s\u1ebd ch\u1ecbu \u0111\u1ef1ng s\u1ef1 t\u00e0n b\u1ea1o n\u00e0y bao l\u00e2u n\u1eefa?\u201d <\/p>\n 15. Ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n v\u1ec1 s\u1ef1 c\u1ea5u th\u00e0nh<\/strong> (f<\/i>allacy in composition<\/i>)<\/i>. L\u1eadp lu\u1eadn r\u1eb1ng a\/ C\u00e1i \u0111\u00fang trong m\u1ed7i ph\u1ea7n c\u1ee7a c\u00e1i to\u00e0n b\u1ed9 th\u00ec nh\u1ea5t thi\u1ebft c\u0169ng \u0111\u00fang cho ch\u00ednh c\u00e1i to\u00e0n b\u1ed9. Ho\u1eb7c b\/ C\u00e1i \u0111\u00fang cho m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 ph\u1ea7n c\u1ee7a c\u00e1i to\u00e0n b\u1ed9 th\u00ec nh\u1ea5t thi\u1ebft c\u0169ng \u0111\u00fang cho ch\u00ednh c\u00e1i to\u00e0n b\u1ed9. Th\u00ed d\u1ee5, \u201cM\u1ed7i th\u00e0nh vi\u00ean (ho\u1eb7c m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 th\u00e0nh vi\u00ean) c\u1ee7a \u0111\u1ed9i \u0111\u1ec1u l\u1eadp gia \u0111\u00ecnh, do \u0111\u00f3, to\u00e0n \u0111\u1ed9i c\u0169ng c\u00f3 (ho\u1eb7c ph\u1ea3i c\u00f3) gia \u0111\u00ecnh.\u201d Vi\u1ec7c suy ra m\u1ed9t t\u1eadp th\u1ec3 c\u00f3 c\u00e1c \u0111\u1eb7c t\u00ednh nh\u1ea5t \u0111\u1ecbnh m\u00e0 ch\u1ec9 \u0111\u01a1n thu\u1ea7n d\u1ef1a tr\u00ean c\u00e1c th\u00e0nh ph\u1ea7n c\u1ee7a n\u00f3 c\u00f3 ch\u00fang, \u0111\u00e3 ti\u1ebfn h\u00e0nh m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch sai l\u1ea7m t\u1eeb vi\u1ec7c \u0111\u00e1nh gi\u00e1 t\u1eadp th\u1ec3 \u1ea5y m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch ph\u00e2n b\u1ed1 t\u1edbi vi\u1ec7c \u0111\u00e1nh gi\u00e1 n\u00f3 m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch t\u1eadp th\u1ec3. <\/p>\n 16. Ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n s\u1ef1 \u0111\u1ed3ng thu\u1eadn c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c d\u00e2n t\u1ed9c<\/strong> (fallacy of consensus gentium\/<\/i>unanimity<\/i><\/a> of the nations)<\/i> hi\u1ec3u tho\u00e1ng l\u00e0 s\u1ef1 \u0111\u1ed3ng \u00fd r\u1ed9ng r\u00e3i. L\u1eadp lu\u1eadn r\u1eb1ng m\u1ed9t \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng l\u00e0 \u0111\u00fang tr\u00ean c\u0103n b\u1ea3n a) \u0111a s\u1ed1 d\u00e2n t\u1ed9c tin n\u00f3; v\u00e0\/ho\u1eb7c b) n\u00f3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c cho l\u00e0 nh\u01b0 th\u1ebf m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch ph\u1ed5 qu\u00e1t b\u1edfi m\u1ecdi d\u00e2n t\u1ed9c trong m\u1ecdi th\u1eddi \u0111\u1ea1i. Th\u00ed d\u1ee5, \u201cTh\u01b0\u1ee3ng \u0111\u1ebf hi\u1ec7n h\u1eefu v\u00ec m\u1ecdi n\u1ec1n v\u0103n h\u00f3a \u0111\u1ec1u c\u00f3 kh\u00e1i ni\u1ec7m n\u00e0o \u0111\u00f3 v\u1ec1 Th\u01b0\u1ee3ng \u0111\u1ebf\u201d. <\/p>\n 17. Ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n ng\u1eabu nhi\u00ean ngh\u1ecbch \u0111\u1ea3o<\/strong> (fallacy of converse accident)<\/i>; \u0111\u00f4i khi \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n ngh\u1ecbch \u0111\u1ea3o ng\u1eabu nhi\u00ean (converse fallacy of accident)<\/i>; ti\u1ebfng Latin g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 a dicto seculum quid ad dictum simpliciter,<\/i> hi\u1ec3u tho\u00e1ng l\u00e0 t\u1eeb ch\u00e2n l\u00fd\/s\u1ef1 th\u1eadt \u0111\u1eb7c th\u00f9 l\u00e0m nh\u01b0 th\u1ec3 n\u00f3 c\u00f3 gi\u00e1 tr\u1ecb t\u1ed5ng qu\u00e1t; n\u00f3 l\u00e0 <\/i>s\u1ef1 sai l\u1ea7m c\u1ee7a vi\u1ec7c t\u1ed5ng qu\u00e1t h\u00f3a t\u1eeb c\u00e1c tr\u01b0\u1eddng h\u1ee3p ngo\u1ea1i l\u1ec7 phi ki\u1ec3u m\u1eabu. Th\u00ed d\u1ee5, \u201cU\u1ed1ng r\u01b0\u1ee3u m\u1ea1nh v\u00e0 \u1ea5m m\u1ed7i \u0111\u00eam gi\u00fap cho ng\u01b0\u1eddi l\u1edbn tu\u1ed5i th\u01b0 gi\u1ea3n v\u00e0 ng\u1ee7 ngon h\u01a1n. Ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta n\u00f3i chung c\u1ea7n u\u1ed1ng r\u01b0\u1ee3u m\u1ea1nh v\u00e0 \u1ea5m \u0111\u1ec3 th\u01b0 gi\u1ea3n s\u1ef1 c\u0103ng th\u1eb3ng v\u00e0 ng\u1ee7 ngon h\u01a1n\u201d. N\u00f3 g\u1ea7n gi\u1ed1ng v\u1edbi s\u1ed1 10 Ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n ng\u1eabu nhi\u00ean \u1edf tr\u00ean. <\/p>\n 18. Ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n s\u1ef1 ph\u00e2n chia<\/strong> (fallacy of division<\/i>)<\/i>. L\u1eadp lu\u1eadn r\u1eb1ng c\u00e1i \u0111\u00fang c\u1ee7a c\u00e1i to\u00e0n b\u1ed9 th\u00ec a) nh\u1ea5t thi\u1ebft c\u0169ng \u0111\u00fang cho c\u00e1c ph\u1ea7n c\u1ee7a n\u00f3; v\u00e0\/ho\u1eb7c b) c\u0169ng \u0111\u00fang cho m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 ph\u1ea7n c\u1ee7a n\u00f3. Th\u00ed d\u1ee5, C\u1ed9ng \u0111\u1ed3ng Hoa K\u1ef3 ven Th\u00e1i b\u00ecnh d\u01b0\u01a1ng \u0111\u1ec1u gi\u00e0u c\u00f3 c\u1ef1c k\u1ef3, do \u0111\u00f3 m\u1ecdi ng\u01b0\u1eddi s\u1ed1ng \u1edf \u0111\u00f3 \u0111\u1ec1u (ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0) gi\u00e0u c\u00f3 c\u1ef1c k\u1ef3 (ho\u1eb7c do \u0111\u00f3 Adam, ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111ang s\u1ed1ng \u1edf \u0111\u00f3, l\u00e0 (ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0) gi\u00e0u c\u00f3 c\u1ef1c k\u1ef3). Vi\u1ec7c suy ra c\u00e1c th\u00e0nh ph\u1ea7n c\u1ee7a m\u1ed9t t\u1eadp th\u1ec3 c\u00f3 c\u00e1c \u0111\u1eb7c t\u00ednh nh\u1ea5t \u0111\u1ecbnh m\u00e0 ch\u1ec9 ho\u00e0n to\u00e0n d\u1ef1a tr\u00ean t\u1eadp th\u1ec3 \u1ea5y c\u00f3 ch\u00fang, \u0111\u00e3 ti\u1ebfn h\u00e0nh m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch sai l\u1ea7m t\u1eeb vi\u1ec7c \u0111\u00e1nh gi\u00e1 t\u1eadp th\u1ec3 \u1ea5y m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch t\u1eadp th\u1ec3 t\u1edbi vi\u1ec7c \u0111\u00e1nh gi\u00e1 n\u00f3 m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch ph\u00e2n b\u1ed1. <\/p>\n 19. Ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n l\u1eadp l\u1edd<\/strong> (fallacy of equivocation<\/i>)<\/i>. M\u1ed9t l\u1eadp lu\u1eadn trong \u0111\u00f3 m\u1ed9t t\u1eeb ng\u1eef \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c d\u00f9ng v\u1edbi \u00fd ngh\u0129a n\u00e0y \u1edf ph\u1ea7n n\u00e0y c\u1ee7a lu\u1eadn c\u1ee9, v\u00e0 v\u1edbi \u00fd ngh\u0129a kh\u00e1c \u1edf ph\u1ea7n kia c\u0169ng trong lu\u1eadn c\u1ee9 \u1ea5y. Th\u00ed d\u1ee5 th\u00f4ng th\u01b0\u1eddng, \u201cC\u00f9ng \u0111\u00edch c\u1ee7a v\u1eadt l\u00e0 s\u1ef1 to\u00e0n h\u1ea3o c\u1ee7a n\u00f3; ch\u1ebft l\u00e0 c\u00f9ng \u0111\u00edch c\u1ee7a cu\u1ed9c \u0111\u1eddi; do \u0111\u00f3, c\u00e1i ch\u1ebft l\u00e0 s\u1ef1 to\u00e0n h\u1ea3o c\u1ee7a cu\u1ed9c \u0111\u1eddi\u201d. <\/p>\n 20. Ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n nguy\u00ean nh\u00e2n sai<\/strong> (fallacy of non causa pro causa)<\/i>. C\u0169ng c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 hi\u1ebfu l\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 nguy\u00ean nh\u00e2n c\u1ee7a lo\u1ea1i \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u01b0a ra nh\u01b0 l\u00e0 nguy\u00ean nh\u00e2n. N\u00f3 th\u1ec3 hi\u1ec7n \u1edf a\/ Tin r\u1eb1ng c\u00e1i g\u00ec \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0 nguy\u00ean nh\u00e2n c\u1ee7a m\u1ed9t hi\u1ec7u qu\u1ea3 khi trong th\u1ef1c t\u1ea1i, n\u00f3 kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i. Th\u00ed d\u1ee5, \u201cNh\u1eefng c\u00e2u th\u1ea7n ch\u00fa c\u1ee7a t\u00f4i khi\u1ebfn cho \u0111\u1ed5 m\u01b0a\u201d; b\/ L\u1eadp lu\u1eadn r\u1eb1ng l\u1eddi ph\u00e1t bi\u1ec3u \u0111\u00f3 c\u00f3 v\u1ebb kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ch\u1ea5p nh\u1eadn v\u00ec n\u00f3 bao h\u00e0m m\u1ed9t l\u1eddi ph\u00e1t bi\u1ec3u kh\u00e1c sai (nh\u01b0ng trong th\u1ef1c t\u1ea1i, n\u00f3 kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i nh\u01b0 th\u1ebf). <\/p>\n 21. Ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n l\u1ea5y h\u1eadu qu\u1ea3 n\u00e0y l\u00e0m nguy\u00ean nh\u00e2n n\u1ecd<\/strong> (f<\/i>allacy of post hoc<\/i> ergo propter hoc<\/i>)<\/i>. C\u0169ng c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 hi\u1ec3u tho\u00e1ng l\u00e0 n\u00f3 sau c\u00e1i n\u00e0y do \u0111\u00f3 n\u00f3 l\u00e0 h\u1eadu qu\u1ea3 (hi\u1ec7u qu\u1ea3) c\u1ee7a c\u00e1i n\u00e0y;<\/i> ho\u1eb7c n\u00f3 sau c\u00e1i n\u00e0y do \u0111\u00f3 n\u00f3 b\u1edfi v\u00ec c\u00e1i n\u00e0y. \u0110\u00f4i khi \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n nguy\u00ean nh\u00e2n gi\u1ea3 <\/i>(<\/i>fallacy of false cause)<\/i>, vi\u1ec7c k\u1ebft lu\u1eadn r\u1eb1ng c\u00e1i n\u00e0y l\u00e0 nguy\u00ean nh\u00e2n c\u1ee7a c\u00e1i kia v\u00ec \u0111i tr\u01b0\u1edbc n\u00f3 trong th\u1eddi gian. \u0110\u00e2y l\u00e0 s\u1ef1 hoang mang ho\u1eb7c l\u1eabn l\u1ed9n gi\u1eefa kh\u00e1i ni\u1ec7m v\u1ec1 s\u1ef1 k\u1ebf ti\u1ebfp v\u00e0 kh\u00e1i ni\u1ec7m v\u1ec1 nh\u00e2n qu\u1ea3. Th\u00ed d\u1ee5, \u201cCon m\u00e8o mun ch\u1ea1y ngang l\u1ed1i \u0111i c\u1ee7a t\u00f4i, m\u01b0\u1eddi ph\u00fat sau t\u00f4i b\u1ecb \u00f4 t\u00f4 \u0111\u1ee5ng. Do \u0111\u00f3, con m\u00e8o mun ch\u1ea1y ngang l\u1ed1i \u0111i c\u1ee7a t\u00f4i l\u00e0 nguy\u00ean nh\u00e2n c\u1ee7a vi\u1ec7c t\u00f4i b\u1ecb \u00f4 t\u00f4 \u0111\u1ee5ng\u201d. <\/p>\n 22. Ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n t\u1ed5ng qu\u00e1t h\u00f3a v\u1ed9i v\u00e3<\/strong> (fallacy of hasty generalization<\/i>), \u0111\u00f4i khi \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n qui n\u1ea1p v\u1ed9i v\u00e3 <\/i>(<\/i>fallacy of hasty induction)<\/i>. Sai l\u1ea7m c\u1ee7a l\u1eadp lu\u1eadn qua \u0111\u00f3 l\u1eddi ph\u00e1t bi\u1ec3u t\u1ed5ng qu\u00e1t \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c x\u00e1c \u0111\u1ecbnh (\u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c r\u00fat ra) d\u1ef1a tr\u00ean a\/ th\u00f4ng tin h\u1ea1n ch\u1ebf; b\/ b\u1eb1ng c\u1ee9 kh\u00f4ng t\u01b0\u01a1ng x\u1ee9ng, ho\u1eb7c c\/ m\u1eabu tr\u01b0ng d\u1eabn kh\u00f4ng ti\u00eau bi\u1ec3u. <\/p>\n 23. Ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n \u0111\u00e1nh l\u1ea1c h\u01b0\u1edbng v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1<\/strong> (fallacy of ignoratio elenchi\/<\/i>ignorance of the refutation)<\/i>. L\u00e0m l\u01a1 s\u1ef1 b\u00e1c b\u1ebb, c\u0169ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 k\u1ebft lu\u1eadn kh\u00f4ng th\u00edch \u0111\u00e1ng (irrelevant conclusion)<\/i>, \u0111\u1ed3ng ngh\u0129a lu\u1eadn c\u1ee9 tr\u1eadt l\u1ea5t. Ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 l\u1eadp lu\u1eadn cho c\u00e1i g\u00ec \u0111\u00f3 kh\u00e1c v\u1edbi c\u00e1i \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ch\u1ee9ng minh, qua \u0111\u00f3 kh\u00f4ng c\u00e1ch g\u00ec b\u00e1c b\u1ebb (ho\u1eb7c h\u1ed7 tr\u1ee3) cho c\u00e1c quan \u0111i\u1ec3m c\u1ee7a v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1. Th\u00ed d\u1ee5: M\u1ed9t lu\u1eadt s\u01b0 b\u00e0o ch\u1eefa cho th\u00e2n ch\u1ee7 nghi\u1ec7n r\u01b0\u1ee3u v\u1eeba gi\u1ebft ba ng\u01b0\u1eddi trong c\u01a1n say kh\u01b0\u1edbt, l\u1eadp lu\u1eadn r\u1eb1ng th\u00f3i nghi\u1ec7n r\u01b0\u1ee3u l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t t\u1eadt b\u1ec7nh kinh kh\u1ee7ng, m\u1ecdi ng\u01b0\u1eddi n\u00ean c\u1ed1 h\u1ebft s\u1ee9c lo\u1ea1i tr\u1eeb n\u00f3. \u0110\u00f4i khi ki\u1ec3u ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n n\u00e0y c\u0169ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c d\u00f9ng nh\u01b0 m\u1ed9t m\u1ec7nh danh t\u1ed5ng qu\u00e1t cho m\u1ecdi ph\u00e9p ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n \u0111\u1eb7t c\u0103n b\u1ea3n tr\u00ean t\u00ednh kh\u00f4ng th\u00edch \u0111\u00e1ng. <\/p>\n 24. Ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n mang t\u00ednh kh\u00f4ng nh\u1ea5t qu\u00e1n<\/strong> (fallacy of inconsistency)<\/i>. L\u1eadp lu\u1eadn t\u1eeb nh\u1eefng ph\u00e1t bi\u1ec3u kh\u00f4ng nh\u1ea5t qu\u00e1n, ho\u1eb7c t\u1edbi nh\u1eefng k\u1ebft lu\u1eadn kh\u00f4ng nh\u1ea5t qu\u00e1n v\u1edbi c\u00e1c ti\u1ec1n \u0111\u1ec1. <\/i>Xem th\u00eam s\u1ed1 36 b\u00ean d\u01b0\u1edbi. <\/p>\n 25. Ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n m\u1ee5c \u0111\u00edch kh\u00f4ng th\u00edch \u0111\u00e1ng<\/strong> (fallacy of irrelevant purpose)<\/i>. L\u1eadp lu\u1eadn ph\u1ea3n b\u00e1c c\u00e1i g\u00ec \u0111\u00f3 tr\u00ean c\u0103n b\u1ea3n r\u1eb1ng n\u00f3 kh\u00f4ng ho\u00e0n th\u00e0nh m\u1ee5c \u0111\u00edch c\u1ee7a n\u00f3 (d\u00f9 trong th\u1ef1c t\u1ebf kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 m\u1ee5c \u0111\u00edch n\u00e0o d\u1ef1 t\u00ednh cho n\u00f3). <\/p>\n 26. Ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n l\u00e0-c\u1ea7n-ph\u1ea3i<\/strong> (fallacy of is-to-ought)<\/i>. L\u1eadp lu\u1eadn t\u1eeb c\u00e1c ti\u1ec1n \u0111\u1ec1 ch\u1ec9 c\u00f3 nh\u1eefng ph\u00e1t bi\u1ec3u c\u00f3 t\u00ednh m\u00f4 t\u1ea3 (l\u00e0, is<\/i>), ho\u1eb7c t\u1edbi k\u1ebft lu\u1eadn ch\u1ee9a \u0111\u1ef1ng c\u1ea7n ph\u1ea3i, ought,<\/i> ho\u1eb7c n\u00ean, should.<\/i> <\/p>\n 27. Ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n nh\u1eefng c\u00e1i ch\u1ecdn l\u1ef1a b\u1ecb h\u1ea1n ch\u1ebf ho\u1eb7c gi\u1ea3 t\u1ea1o<\/strong> (fallacy of limited (or false) alternatives)<\/i>. Sai l\u1ea7m c\u1ee7a vi\u1ec7c nh\u1ea5t quy\u1ebft m\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 th\u1ea9m tra ho\u1eb7c b\u1eb1ng c\u1ee9 \u0111\u1ea7y \u0111\u1ee7 khi\u1ebfn cho nh\u1eefng ch\u1ecdn l\u1ef1a cho qu\u00e1 tr\u00ecnh h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng b\u1ecb c\u1ea1n ki\u1ec7t v\u00e0\/ho\u1eb7c l\u1eabn l\u1ed9n qua l\u1ea1i. <\/p>\n 28. Ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n nhi\u1ec1u c\u00e2u h\u1ecfi<\/strong> (fallacy of many questions<\/i>). \u0110\u00f4i khi c\u00f2n g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n c\u00e2u h\u1ecfi sai (fallacy of the false question<\/i>). Y\u00eau c\u1ea7u l\u00e0 \u0111\u1eb7t c\u00e2u h\u1ecfi m\u00e0 ch\u1ec9 c\u00f3 m\u1ed9t c\u00e2u tr\u1ea3 l\u1eddi \u0111\u01a1n gi\u1ea3n v\u00e0 duy nh\u1ea5t cho n\u00f3, th\u1ebf nh\u01b0ng c\u00e2u h\u1ecfi l\u1ea1i a) \u0111\u00f2i h\u1ecfi m\u1ed9t chu\u1ed7i c\u00e1c c\u00e2u tr\u1ea3 l\u1eddi, v\u00e0\/ho\u1eb7c b) \u0111\u00f2i h\u1ecfi c\u00e2u tr\u1ea3 l\u1eddi \u0111\u01b0a t\u1edbi m\u1ed9t lo\u1ea1t c\u00e1c c\u00e2u h\u1ecfi kh\u00e1c, m\u1ed7i c\u00e1i n\u00ean \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c tr\u1ea3 l\u1eddi ri\u00eang ra. Th\u00ed d\u1ee5: \u201cC\u00f3 ph\u1ea3i anh v\u1eeba r\u1eddi gh\u1ebf nh\u00e0 tr\u01b0\u1eddng?\u201d <\/p>\n 29. Ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n xuy\u00ean t\u1ea1c ng\u1eef c\u1ea3nh<\/strong> (fallacy of misleading context)<\/i>. L\u1eadp lu\u1eadn b\u1eb1ng c\u00e1ch tr\u00ecnh b\u00e0y sai, xuy\u00ean t\u1ea1c, b\u1ecf s\u00f3t, ho\u1eb7c tr\u00edch d\u1eabn c\u00e1i g\u00ec \u0111\u00f3 n\u1eb1m ngo\u00e0i ng\u1eef c\u1ea3nh. <\/p>\n 30. Ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n ti\u00ean ki\u1ebfn<\/strong> (fallacy of prejudice)<\/i>. L\u1eadp lu\u1eadn ph\u00e1t xu\u1ea5t t\u1eeb th\u00e0nh ki\u1ebfn ho\u1eb7c \u0111\u1ed3ng h\u00f3a c\u1ea3m x\u00fac ho\u1eb7c li\u00ean quan t\u1edbi m\u1ed9t \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng (lu\u1eadn c\u1ee9, h\u1ecdc thuy\u1ebft, \u0111\u1ecbnh ch\u1ebf, v.v.) <\/p>\n 31. Ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n \u0111\u00e1nh tr\u00e1o v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1<\/strong> (fallacy of red herring<\/i>)<\/i>. L\u00e0m l\u01a1 s\u1ef1 ph\u00ea b\u00ecnh m\u1ed9t lu\u1eadn c\u1ee9 b\u1eb1ng c\u00e1ch chuy\u1ec3n s\u1ef1 ch\u00fa \u00fd t\u1edbi ch\u1ee7 \u0111\u1ec1 kh\u00e1c. Th\u00ed d\u1ee5, \u201cB\u1ea1n tin v\u00e0o s\u1ef1 ph\u00e1 thai, tuy th\u1ebf, tr\u01b0\u1edbc m\u1eb7t c\u01a1 quan l\u1eadp ph\u00e1p, b\u1ea1n kh\u00f4ng tin v\u00e0o d\u1ef1 lu\u1eadt quy\u1ec1n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ch\u1ebft c\u00f3 ph\u1ea9m c\u00e1ch.\u201d <\/p>\n 32. Ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n thi\u00ean l\u1ec7ch<\/strong> (fallacy of slanting)<\/i>. C\u1ed1 \u00fd b\u1ecf s\u00f3t, kh\u00f4ng nh\u1ea5n m\u1ea1nh ho\u1eb7c nh\u1ea5n m\u1ea1nh qu\u00e1 \u0111\u00e1ng c\u00e1c \u0111i\u1ec3m nh\u1ea5t \u0111\u1ecbnh \u0111\u1ec3 lo\u1ea1i tr\u1eeb c\u00e1c \u0111i\u1ec3m kh\u00e1c nh\u1eb1m che gi\u1ea5u ch\u1ee9ng c\u1ee9 v\u1eeba quan tr\u1ecdng v\u00e0 th\u00edch \u0111\u00e1ng \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi k\u1ebft lu\u1eadn c\u1ee7a m\u1ed9t lu\u1eadn c\u1ee9 v\u1eeba \u0111\u00e1ng \u0111\u1ec3 \u00fd t\u1edbi trong m\u1ed9t lu\u1eadn c\u1ee9. <\/p>\n 33. Ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n b\u00e0o ch\u1eefa \u0111\u1eb7c bi\u1ec7t<\/strong> (fallacy of special pleading<\/i>)<\/i>. G\u1ed3m hai h\u00ecnh th\u1ee9c a\/ Ch\u1ea5p nh\u1eadn m\u1ed9t \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng ho\u1eb7c m\u1ed9t ph\u00ea b\u00ecnh khi n\u00f3 \u00e1p d\u1ee5ng v\u00e0o lu\u1eadn c\u1ee9 c\u1ee7a \u0111\u1ed1i ph\u01b0\u01a1ng, nh\u01b0ng t\u1eeb kh\u01b0\u1edbc khi n\u00f3 \u00e1p d\u1ee5ng v\u00e0o lu\u1eadn c\u1ee9 c\u1ee7a ch\u00ednh m\u00ecnh; b\/ T\u1eeb kh\u01b0\u1edbc m\u1ed9t \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng ho\u1eb7c m\u1ed9t ph\u00ea b\u00ecnh khi n\u00f3 \u00e1p d\u1ee5ng v\u00e0o lu\u1eadn c\u1ee9 c\u1ee7a \u0111\u1ed1i ph\u01b0\u01a1ng, nh\u01b0ng ch\u1ea5p nh\u1eadn khi n\u00f3 \u00e1p d\u1ee5ng v\u00e0o lu\u1eadn c\u1ee9 c\u1ee7a ch\u00ednh m\u00ecnh. <\/p>\n 34. Ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n ng\u01b0\u1eddi r\u01a1m<\/strong> (fallacy of straw man)<\/i>. Tr\u00ecnh b\u00e0y l\u1eadp tr\u01b0\u1eddng c\u1ee7a \u0111\u1ed1i ph\u01b0\u01a1ng theo m\u1ed9t phi\u00ean b\u1ea3n y\u1ebfu \u1edbt v\u00e0 xuy\u00ean t\u1ea1c h\u1ebft s\u1ee9c c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u1ec3 n\u00f3 c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 b\u1ecb b\u00e1c b\u1ebb d\u1ec5 d\u00e0ng. Th\u00ed d\u1ee5, \u201cThuy\u1ebft Darwin h\u00e0m ch\u1ee9a sai l\u1ea1c. N\u00f3 tuy\u00ean b\u1ed1 r\u1eb1ng ch\u00fang ta \u0111\u1ec1u l\u00e0 h\u1eadu du\u1ec7 c\u1ee7a m\u1ed9t t\u1ea1o v\u1eadt gi\u1ed1ng nh\u01b0 v\u01b0\u1ee3n, t\u1eeb c\u00e1i \u0111\u00f3 ch\u00fang ta ti\u1ebfn h\u00f3a theo s\u1ef1 ch\u1ecdn l\u1ecdc t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean. Kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 b\u1eb1ng ch\u1ee9ng n\u00e0o v\u1ec1 vi\u1ec7c kh\u00e1m ph\u00e1 m\u1ed9t sinh v\u1eadt nh\u01b0 th\u1ebf. Kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0a ra s\u1ef1 gi\u1ea3i th\u00edch nh\u1ea5t qu\u00e1n v\u00e0 t\u01b0\u01a1ng x\u1ee9ng v\u1ec1 ch\u1ecdn l\u1ecdc t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean. Do \u0111\u00f3, kh\u00f4ng x\u1ea3y ra s\u1ef1 ti\u1ebfn h\u00f3a theo thuy\u1ebft Darwin\u201d. <\/p>\n 35. Ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n r\u00e2u ria<\/strong> (fallacy of the beard)<\/i>. a\/ L\u1eadp lu\u1eadn r\u1eb1ng d\u1ecb bi\u1ec7t nh\u1ecf (ti\u1ec3u ti\u1ebft) kh\u00f4ng (ho\u1eb7c kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3) t\u1ea1o ra s\u1ef1 kh\u00e1c bi\u1ec7t, hay kh\u00f4ng (ho\u1eb7c kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3) c\u00f3 \u00fd ngh\u0129a; ho\u1eb7c b\/ L\u1eadp lu\u1eadn \u0111\u1ec3 t\u00ecm th\u1ea5y \u0111i\u1ec3m x\u00e1c \u0111\u1ecbnh \u1edf \u0111\u00f3 c\u00e1i g\u00ec \u0111\u00f3 c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u1ecbnh danh. Th\u00ed d\u1ee5: Qu\u1ea3 quy\u1ebft r\u1eb1ng m\u1ea5t m\u1ed9t \u00edt t\u00f3c \u1edf ch\u1ed7 n\u00e0y ch\u1ed7 n\u1ecd tr\u00ean \u0111\u1ea7u ho\u00e0n to\u00e0n kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 ngh\u0129a cho th\u1ea5y s\u1ef1 h\u00f3i \u0111\u1ea7u \u0111ang x\u1ea3y t\u1edbi tr\u01b0\u1edbc m\u1eaft, ho\u1eb7c ra s\u1ee9c quy\u1ebft \u0111\u1ecbnh r\u1eb1ng con ng\u01b0\u1eddi ph\u1ea3i c\u00f3 bao nhi\u00eau s\u1ee3i t\u00f3c tr\u01b0\u1edbc khi y c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 b\u1ecb g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 h\u00f3i (ho\u1eb7c kh\u00f4ng h\u00f3i). <\/p>\n 36. Ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n b\u1ea1n c\u0169ng v\u1eady<\/strong> (fallacy of tu quo que<\/i>\/<\/i>you also<\/i>. G\u1ed3m hai c\u00e1ch a\/ Tr\u00ecnh b\u00e0y b\u1eb1ng c\u1ee9 r\u1eb1ng h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng c\u1ee7a m\u1ed9t ng\u01b0\u1eddi kh\u00f4ng nh\u1ea5t qu\u00e1n v\u1edbi c\u00e1i m\u00e0 y \u0111ang l\u1eadp lu\u1eadn; b\/ Cho th\u1ea5y r\u1eb1ng quan \u0111i\u1ec3m c\u1ee7a m\u1ed9t ng\u01b0\u1eddi kh\u00f4ng nh\u1ea5t qu\u00e1n v\u1edbi c\u00e1i tr\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111\u00e2y y tin, do \u0111\u00f3 ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u1ea5y kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u00e1ng tin, v\u00e0 (ho\u1eb7c) quan \u0111i\u1ec3m m\u1edbi c\u1ee7a y s\u1ebd (ho\u1eb7c \u0111\u00e1ng) b\u1ecb t\u1eeb kh\u01b0\u1edbc. Th\u00ed d\u1ee5, \u201cTh\u1ea9m ph\u00e1n X. ch\u1ed1ng \u0111\u1ed1i vi\u1ec7c h\u1ee3p ph\u00e1p ho\u00e1 c\u1ea7n sa b\u1ed1n n\u0103m tr\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111\u00e2y khi \u00f4ng \u1ea5y \u0111ang c\u00f3 quy\u1ec1n. B\u00e2y gi\u1edd \u00f4ng ta \u1ee7ng h\u1ed9 n\u00f3. L\u00e0m th\u1ebf n\u00e0o b\u1ea1n c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 tin t\u01b0\u1edfng m\u1ed9t ng\u01b0\u1eddi thay \u0111\u1ed5i \u00fd ki\u1ebfn v\u1ec1 m\u1ed9t v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1 quan tr\u1ecdng nh\u01b0 th\u1ebf? L\u1eadp tr\u01b0\u1eddng hi\u1ec7n nay c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng kh\u00f4ng nh\u1ea5t qu\u00e1n v\u1edbi quan \u0111i\u1ec3m c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng tr\u01b0\u1edbc kia, do \u0111\u00f3 kh\u00f4ng n\u00ean ch\u1ea5p nh\u1eadn n\u00f3\u201d. c\/ \u0111\u00f4i khi li\u00ean quan t\u1edbi ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n hai sai l\u00e0m th\u00e0nh m\u1ed9t \u0111\u00fang <\/i>(<\/i>fallacy of two wrongs make a right)<\/i>. Th\u00ed d\u1ee5: C\u00e1c \u0111\u1ea3ng vi\u00ean \u0111\u1ea3ng A su\u1ed1t nhi\u1ec1u n\u0103m d\u00f9ng m\u00e1y ghi \u00e2m nghe l\u00e9n b\u1ea5t h\u1ee3p ph\u00e1p, do \u0111\u00f3 kh\u00f4ng n\u00ean k\u1ebft \u00e1n c\u00e1c \u0111\u1ea3ng vi\u00ean \u0111\u1ea3ng B v\u1ec1 vi\u1ec7c ghi \u00e2m nghe l\u00e9n b\u1ea5t h\u1ee3p ph\u00e1p. <\/p>\n 37. Ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n ngu\u1ed3n kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u1ea1t chu\u1ea9n<\/strong> (fallacy of unqualified source)<\/i>. D\u00f9ng m\u1ed9t lu\u1eadn c\u1ee9 \u0111\u1ec3 h\u1ed7 tr\u1ee3 m\u00e0 ngu\u1ed3n g\u1ed1c th\u1ea9m quy\u1ec1n c\u1ee7a n\u00f3 kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u1ea1t chu\u1ea9n cung c\u1ea5p b\u1eb1ng c\u1ee9. <\/p>\n 38. Ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n d\u00e2n c\u1edd b\u1ea1c<\/strong> (gambler\u2019s fallacy<\/i>)<\/i>. \u1ede trong c\u00e1c c\u00e1ch a\/ L\u1eadp lu\u1eadn r\u1eb1ng, v\u00ec, th\u00ed d\u1ee5, m\u1ed9t \u0111\u1ed3ng xu n\u1ea3y ra m\u1eb7t s\u1ea5p li\u00ean ti\u1ebfp m\u01b0\u1eddi l\u1ea7n th\u00ec l\u1ea7n th\u1ee9 m\u01b0\u1eddi m\u1ed9t n\u00f3 s\u1ebd n\u1ea3y ra m\u1eb7t ng\u1eeda; ho\u1eb7c b) L\u1eadp lu\u1eadn r\u1eb1ng, v\u00ec, th\u00ed d\u1ee5, h\u00e3ng m\u00e1y bay \u1ea5y su\u1ed1t 10 n\u0103m nay kh\u00f4ng b\u1ecb tai n\u1ea1n, th\u1ebf th\u00ec ch\u1eb3ng m\u1ea5y ch\u1ed1c n\u00f3 s\u1ebd g\u1eb7p tai n\u1ea1n. Ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n d\u00e2n c\u1edd b\u1ea1c t\u1eeb kh\u01b0\u1edbc s\u1ef1 gi\u1ea3 \u0111\u1ecbnh trong l\u00fd thuy\u1ebft x\u00e1c su\u1ea5t r\u1eb1ng m\u1ed7i bi\u1ebfn c\u1ed1 th\u00ec \u0111\u1ed9c l\u1eadp v\u1edbi nh\u1eefng c\u00e1i x\u1ea3y ra tr\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111\u00e2y c\u1ee7a n\u00f3. C\u01a1 h\u1ed9i x\u1ea3y ra c\u1ee7a m\u1ed9t bi\u1ebfn c\u1ed1 th\u00ec lu\u00f4n lu\u00f4n gi\u1ed1ng nhau, b\u1ea5t ch\u1ea5p bao nhi\u00eau l\u1ea7n bi\u1ebfn c\u1ed1 \u1ea5y \u0111\u00e3 x\u1ea3y ra trong qu\u00e1 kh\u1ee9. C\u0103n c\u1ee9 v\u00e0o nh\u1eefng bi\u1ebfn c\u1ed1 x\u1ea3y ra trong m\u1ed9t th\u1eddi gian \u0111\u1ee7 d\u00e0i th\u00ec l\u00fac \u1ea5y t\u1ea7n s\u1ed1 xu\u1ea5t hi\u1ec7n c\u1ee7a ch\u00fang trung b\u00ecnh l\u00e0 \u00bd. Ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n d\u00e2n c\u1edd b\u1ea1c \u0111\u00f4i khi \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c c\u00f3 \u00fd n\u00f3i nh\u01b0 l\u00e0 ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n Monte Carlo (Monte Carlo fallacy)<\/i>; n\u00f3 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t d\u1ea1ng t\u1ed5ng qu\u00e1t h\u00f3a c\u1ee7a ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n d\u00e2n c\u1edd b\u1ea1c: c\u00e1i sai l\u1ea7m c\u1ee7a vi\u1ec7c gi\u1ea3 \u0111\u1ecbnh r\u1eb1ng v\u00ec c\u00f3 c\u00e1i g\u00ec \u0111\u00f3 \u0111ang x\u1ea3y ra m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch \u00edt th\u01b0\u1eddng xuy\u00ean h\u01a1n k\u1ef3 v\u1ecdng trong qu\u00e1 kh\u1ee9, n\u00ean c\u00f3 c\u01a1 h\u1ed9i gia t\u0103ng r\u1eb1ng n\u00f3 s\u1ebd s\u1edbm x\u1ea3y ra. <\/p>\n 39. Ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n di truy\u1ec1n<\/strong> (genetic fallacy)<\/i>. Theo c\u00e1c c\u00e1ch nh\u01b0 a\/ L\u1eadp lu\u1eadn r\u1eb1ng ngu\u1ed3n g\u1ed1c c\u1ee7a c\u00e1i g\u00ec \u0111\u00f3 th\u00ec \u0111\u1ed3ng h\u00f3a v\u1edbi c\u00e1i m\u00e0 t\u1eeb \u0111\u00f3 n\u00f3 b\u1eaft ngu\u1ed3n. Th\u00ed d\u1ee5: \u201c\u00dd th\u1ee9c c\u00f3 ngu\u1ed3n g\u1ed1c trong di\u1ec5n ti\u1ebfn th\u1ea7n kinh, do \u0111\u00f3, \u00fd th\u1ee9c l\u00e0 (kh\u00f4ng l\u00e0 g\u00ec c\u1ea3 m\u00e0 ch\u1ec9 l\u00e0) c\u00e1c di\u1ec5n ti\u1ebfn th\u1ea7n kinh\u201d. \u0110\u00f4i khi \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u1ec1 c\u1eadp t\u1edbi nh\u01b0 l\u00e0 ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n kh\u00f4ng l\u00e0 g\u00ec c\u1ea3 m\u00e0 ch\u1ec9 l\u00e0 <\/i>(<\/i>nothing-but fallacy)<\/i> ho\u1eb7c ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n gi\u1ea3m thi\u1ec3u <\/i>(<\/i>reduce fallacy)<\/i>; b\/ \u0110\u00e1nh gi\u00e1 ho\u1eb7c gi\u1ea3i th\u00edch c\u00e1i g\u00ec \u0111\u00f3 trong li\u00ean quan t\u1edbi ngu\u1ed3n g\u1ed1c, xu\u1ea5t x\u1ee9, ho\u1eb7c kh\u1edfi \u0111\u1ea7u; c\/ L\u1eadp lu\u1eadn r\u1eb1ng c\u00e1i g\u00ec \u0111\u00f3 s\u1ebd b\u1ecb t\u1eeb kh\u01b0\u1edbc v\u00ec ngu\u1ed3n g\u1ed1c c\u1ee7a n\u00f3 \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c bi\u1ebft v\u00e0\/ho\u1eb7c b\u1ecb nghi ng\u1edd. <\/p>\n 40. Ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n th\u1ef1c d\u1ee5ng<\/strong> (p<\/i>ragmatic fallacy)<\/i>. L\u1eadp lu\u1eadn r\u1eb1ng c\u00e1i g\u00ec \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0 \u0111\u00fang v\u00ec n\u00f3 c\u00f3 k\u1ebft qu\u1ea3 th\u1ef1c d\u1ee5ng \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi d\u00e2n ch\u00fang: n\u00f3 l\u00e0m cho h\u1ecd h\u1ea1nh ph\u00fac, c\u01b0 x\u1eed d\u1ec5 d\u00e0ng h\u01a1n, s\u1ed1ng \u0111\u1ea1o \u0111\u1ee9c, chung th\u1ee7y v\u00e0 \u1ed5n \u0111\u1ecbnh h\u01a1n. Th\u00ed d\u1ee5: Cu\u1ed9c s\u1ed1ng b\u1ea5t t\u1eed hi\u1ec7n h\u1eefu v\u00ec n\u1ebfu kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 kh\u00e1i ni\u1ec7m \u1ea5y, lo\u00e0i ng\u01b0\u1eddi s\u1ebd kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 c\u00e1i g\u00ec \u0111\u1ec3 s\u1ed1ng cho n\u00f3. H\u1eb3n kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 \u00fd ngh\u0129a ho\u1eb7c c\u1ee9u c\u00e1nh n\u00e0o trong cu\u1ed9c \u0111\u1eddi v\u00e0 m\u1ecdi ng\u01b0\u1eddi h\u1eb3n b\u1ea5t t\u1eed. <\/p>\n Ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n v\u00e0 sophism<\/strong> <\/p>\n T\u1ea1i Hy L\u1ea1p th\u1eddi c\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ea1i c\u00f3 ph\u00e1i tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc Sophism m\u00e0 nhi\u1ec1u ng\u01b0\u1eddi Vi\u1ec7t d\u1ecbch l\u00e0 Ph\u00e1i ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n, v\u00e0 sophist l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n. Th\u1eadt ra, n\u00ean g\u1ecdi h\u1ecd l\u00e0 bi\u1ec7n s\u0129, v\u00e0 ph\u00e1i bi\u1ec7n lu\u1eadn. H\u1ecd g\u1ed3m c\u00e1c t\u00f4n s\u01b0 (ngh\u0129a \u0111en l\u00e0 \u201cng\u01b0\u1eddi d\u1ea1y h\u1ecdc\u201d) c\u01b0 tr\u00fa r\u00e0y \u0111\u00e2y mai \u0111\u00f3 v\u00e0o th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 th\u1ee9 5 tr\u01b0\u1edbc C\u00f4ng Nguy\u00ean (TCN). Nh\u1eadn ti\u1ec1n c\u00f4ng, h\u1ecd d\u1ea1y tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 luy\u1ec7n cho \u0111\u1ec7 t\u1eed thu\u1eadt h\u00f9ng bi\u1ec7n chuy\u00ean nghi\u1ec7p c\u00f9ng c\u00e1c k\u1ef9 thu\u1eadt kh\u00e1c \u0111\u1ec3 k\u00edch th\u00edch qu\u1ea7n ch\u00fang, c\u00e1c nh\u00e2n v\u1eadt ho\u1eb7c quan ch\u1ee9c c\u1ee7a x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i. H\u1ecd \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c m\u00f4 t\u1ea3 r\u1ea5t s\u1ed1ng \u0111\u1ed9ng trong c\u00e1c b\u00e0i \u0111\u1ed1i tho\u1ea1i c\u1ee7a Plato v\u00e0 th\u01b0\u1eddng l\u00e0 \u0111\u1ed1i th\u1ee7 tranh lu\u1eadn m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch bi\u1ec7n ch\u1ee9ng v\u1edbi Socrates. <\/p>\n B\u1eb1ng \u0111\u1ed9ng th\u00e1i kh\u00f4ng quan t\u00e2m t\u1edbi tr\u00e1ch nhi\u1ec7m, \u0111\u1ec3 ho\u00e0n t\u1ea5t d\u1ecbch v\u1ee5, c\u00e1c bi\u1ec7n s\u0129 truy\u1ec1n \u0111\u1ea1t l\u1eddi gi\u1ea3ng c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh v\u1edbi k\u1ef9 thu\u1eadt l\u1eadp lu\u1eadn v\u00e0 l\u1ed1i tu t\u1eeb m\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng quan t\u00e2m t\u1edbi n\u1ed9i dung \u0111\u1ea1o \u0111\u1ee9c. Ng\u01b0\u1ee3c l\u1ea1i, nh\u1eefng k\u1ebb th\u00e1n ph\u1ee5c h\u1ecd \u0111\u00e3 hoan ngh\u00eanh h\u1ecd nh\u01b0 l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng th\u1ee7 l\u00e3nh c\u1ee7a tinh th\u1ea7n khai s\u00e1ng nh\u00e2n b\u1ea3n t\u1eeb th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 5 TCN. Nh\u1eefng khu\u00f4n m\u1eb7t n\u1ed5i b\u1eadt c\u1ee7a ph\u00e1i bi\u1ec7n s\u0129 g\u1ed3m c\u00f3 Protagoras (k.490\u2013k.420 TCN), Hippias (k. 527\u2013510 TCN), Gorgias (483\u2013375 TCN) v\u00e0 Prodicus (k. 460\u2013395 TCN). H\u00ecnh \u1ea3nh c\u1ee7a h\u1ecd \u0111\u00f4i khi l\u00e0m ta li\u00ean t\u01b0\u1edfng t\u1edbi c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 du thuy\u1ebft ch\u00e2n \u0111i d\u00e9p c\u1ecf \u0111\u1ea7u \u0111\u1ed9i n\u00f3n r\u01a1m v\u1edbi m\u1ed9t b\u1ee5ng kinh lu\u00e2n v\u00e0 m\u1ed9ng c\u00f4ng h\u1ea7u, c\u1ee7a Trung Hoa c\u0169ng th\u1eddi Xu\u00e2n thu Chi\u1ebfn qu\u1ed1c. <\/p>\n THU\u1eacT NG\u1eee B\u1ed4 T\u00daC<\/strong> <\/p>\n \u0110\u1ec3 g\u00f3p ph\u1ea7n ti\u1ec7n \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng tra c\u1ee9u cho ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u1ecdc, xin b\u1ed5 t\u00fac th\u00eam m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 thu\u1eadt ng\u1eef v\u1ec1 ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n. <\/p>\n ad <\/b>affectus<\/b>: <\/b>d\u1ef1a v\u00e0o c\u1ea3m x\u00fac, <\/i>argument to emotion<\/a>; ad antiquitatem:<\/b> d\u1ef1a v\u00e0o truy\u1ec1n th\u1ed1ng,<\/i> argument to tradition<\/a>; ad auctoritate:<\/b> d\u1ef1a v\u00e0o th\u1ea9m quy\u1ec1n,<\/b><\/i> <\/b>argument from authority; ad consequentiam<\/b>: d\u1ef1a v\u00e0o h\u1eadu qu\u1ea3,<\/i> argument to consequences<\/a>; ad crumenam:<\/b> d\u1ef1a v\u00e0o s\u1ef1 gi\u00e0u,<\/b><\/i> <\/b>argument to wealth; ad Lazarum:<\/b> d\u1ef1a v\u00e0o s\u1ef1 ngh\u00e8o,<\/i> argument to poverty<\/a>; ad misericordiam:<\/b> d\u1ef1a v\u00e0o th\u01b0\u01a1ng x\u00f3t, <\/i>argument to pity<\/a>; <\/i>ad naculum:<\/b> \u0111e d\u1ecda h\u1eadu qu\u1ea3 x\u1ea5u,<\/i> <\/b>argument to consequences; <\/i>ad novitatis\/ad antiquitatis:<\/b> d\u1ef1a v\u00e0o t\u00ednh m\u1edbi\/c\u0169, <\/i>argument to novelty<\/a>\/antiquity; ad numerum:<\/b> d\u1ef1a v\u00e0o con s\u1ed1,<\/i> <\/b>argument to number; ad <\/b>ridicule:<\/b> d\u1ef1a v\u00e0o <\/i>ch\u1ebf di\u1ec5u,<\/i> <\/b>argument to ridicule; bandwagoning:<\/b> l\u1ee3i d\u1ee5ng c\u1ea3m t\u00ednh v\u00e0 \u0111\u00e1m \u0111\u00f4ng (qu\u1ea3 quy\u1ebft r\u1eb1ng m\u1ecdi ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u1ec1u \u0111\u1ed3ng \u00fd); <\/i>burden of proof:<\/b> b\u1eaft ch\u1ee9ng minh;<\/i> card-stacking:<\/b> l\u1ee3i d\u1ee5ng c\u00e1c s\u1ef1 ki\u1ec7n c\u00e1 bi\u1ec7t<\/i>, (selectively using facts);<\/i> either-or fallacy:<\/b> t\u1ea1o nan \u0111\u1ec1 v\u1edbi s\u1ef1 gi\u1ea3n d\u1ecb h\u00f3a v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1,<\/i> (creating a false dilemmain which the situation is oversimplified); <\/i>ex silentio:<\/b> d\u1ef1a v\u00e0o l\u00e0m thinh, <\/i>argument from silence<\/a>; false analogy:<\/b> v\u00ed von b\u1ea5t x\u1ee9ng; <\/i>false dilemma:<\/b> nan \u0111\u1ec1 gi\u1ea3;<\/i> false equivalence and false analogy:<\/b> \u0111\u1ed1i chi\u1ebfu v\u00e0 lo\u1ea1i suy nh\u1eadp nh\u1eb1ng; <\/i>false generalization generalizing quickly and sloppily:<\/b> kh\u00e1i qu\u00e1t h\u00f3a v\u1ed9i v\u00e3 v\u00e0 c\u1ea9u th\u1ea3;<\/i> in terrorem: <\/b>vi\u1ec7n c\u1edb<\/i> s\u1ee3 h\u00e3i,<\/b><\/i> <\/b>appeal to fear; <\/b>middle ground:<\/b> ch\u1ecdn \u0111\u1ee9ng gi\u1eefa; <\/i>non-sequitur:<\/b> phi logic v\u00e0 nh\u1ea3y c\u00f3c trong l\u1eadp lu\u1eadn,<\/i> making jumps in logic; that does not follow; <\/i>quaternio terminorum<\/b>:<\/b> ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n t\u1ee9 \u0111o\u1ea1n lu\u1eadn,<\/i> <\/b>fallacy of four terms; reletivist fallacy:<\/b> t\u01b0\u01a1ng \u0111\u1ed1i ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a;<\/i> <\/b>v<\/b>acuous truth<\/b><\/a>:<\/b> s\u1ef1 th\u1eadt ng\u1edb ng\u1ea9n; <\/i>wistful thinking:<\/b> d\u1ef1a v\u00e0o l\u1ed1i t\u01b0 duy khao kh\u00e1t; <\/i>affective fallacy:<\/b> ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n v\u1ec1 c\u1ea3m th\u1ee5;<\/i> conditional or questionable <\/b>f<\/b>allacy: <\/b>ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n \u0111\u1eb7t \u0111i\u1ec1u ki\u1ec7n ho\u1eb7c ch\u1ea5t v\u1ea5n; <\/i>domino <\/b>f<\/b>allacy: <\/b>ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n d\u1ed3n \u0111\u1ea9y nhau;<\/i> formal syllogistic <\/b>f<\/b>allacy: <\/b>ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n tam \u0111o\u1ea1n lu\u1eadn h\u00ecnh th\u1ee9c;<\/i> logical <\/b>f<\/b>allacy:<\/b> c\u01b0\u1ee1ng t\u1eeb \u0111o\u1ea1t l\u00fd;<\/i> naturalistic <\/b>f<\/b>allacy:<\/b> ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a<\/i>;<\/i> pathetic <\/b>f<\/b>allacy:<\/b> nh\u00e2n c\u00e1ch h\u00f3a v\u1eadt v\u00f4 tri;<\/i> propositional <\/b>f<\/b>allacy: <\/b>ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n m\u1ec7nh \u0111\u1ec1;<\/i> quantification <\/b>f<\/b>allacy: <\/b>ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n l\u01b0\u1ee3ng t\u00ednh h\u00f3a; <\/i>value-effort <\/b>f<\/b>allacy:<\/b>